History of chemistry Wikipedia. The 1. 87. 1 periodic table constructed by Dmitri Mendeleev. The periodic table is one of the most potent icons in science, lying at the core of chemistry and embodying the most fundamental principles of the field. The history of chemistry represents a time span from ancient history to the present. By 1. 00. 0 BC, civilizations used technologies that would eventually form the basis of the various branches of chemistry. Examples include extracting metals from ores, making pottery and glazes, fermenting beer and wine, extracting chemicals from plants for medicine and perfume, rendering fat into soap, making glass, and making alloys like bronze. The protoscience of chemistry, alchemy, was unsuccessful in explaining the nature of matter and its transformations. However, by performing experiments and recording the results, alchemists set the stage for modern chemistry. The distinction began to emerge when a clear differentiation was made between chemistry and alchemy by Robert Boyle in his work The Sceptical Chymist 1. While both alchemy and chemistry are concerned with matter and its transformations, chemists are seen as applying scientific method to their work. Chemistry is considered to have become an established science with the work of Antoine Lavoisier, who developed a law of conservation of mass that demanded careful measurement and quantitative observations of chemical phenomena. The history of chemistry is intertwined with the history of thermodynamics, especially through the work of Willard Gibbs. Ancient historyeditEarly metallurgyeditThe earliest recorded metal employed by humans seems to be gold which can be found free or native. Small amounts of natural gold have been found in Spanish caves used during the late Paleolithic period, c. BC. 2Silver, copper, tin and meteoric iron can also be found native, allowing a limited amount of metalworking in ancient cultures. Egyptian weapons made from meteoric iron in about 3. BC were highly prized as Daggers from Heaven. Arguably the first chemical reaction used in a controlled manner was fire. However, for millennia fire was seen simply as a mystical force that could transform one substance into another burning wood, or boiling water while producing heat and light. Fire affected many aspects of early societies. These ranged from the simplest facets of everyday life, such as cooking and habitat lighting, to more advanced technologies, such as pottery, bricks, and melting of metals to make tools. It was fire that led to the discovery of glass and the purification of metals which in turn gave way to the rise of metallurgy. During the early stages of metallurgy, methods of purification of metals were sought, and gold, known in ancient Egypt as early as 2. BC, became a precious metal. Bronze AgeeditCertain metals can be recovered from their ores by simply heating the rocks in a fire notably tin, lead and at a higher temperature copper, a process known as smelting. The first evidence of this extractive metallurgy dates from the 5th and 6th millennium BC, and was found in the archaeological sites of Majdanpek, Yarmovac and Plocnik, all three in Serbia. Chemistry Of The Elements Greenwood Pdf' title='Chemistry Of The Elements Greenwood Pdf' />To date, the earliest copper smelting is found at the Belovode site,5 these examples include a copper axe from 5. BC belonging to the Vina culture. Other signs of early metals are found from the third millennium BC in places like Palmela Portugal, Los Millares Spain, and Stonehenge United Kingdom. However, as often happens with the study of prehistoric times, the ultimate beginnings cannot be clearly defined and new discoveries are ongoing. In chemistry, the valence or valency of an element is a measure of its combining power with other atoms when it forms chemical compounds or molecules. The history of chemistry represents a time span from ancient history to the present. By 1000 BC, civilizations used technologies that would eventually form the basis. Mining areas of the ancient Middle East. Boxes colors arsenic is in brown, copper in red, tin in grey, iron in reddish brown, gold in yellow, silver in white and lead in black. Yellow area stands for arsenic bronze, while grey area stands for tin bronze. These first metals were single ones or as found. By combining copper and tin, a superior metal could be made, an alloy called bronze, a major technological shift which began the Bronze Age about 3. BC. The Bronze Age was period in human cultural development when the most advanced metalworking at least in systematic and widespread use included techniques for smelting copper and tin from naturally occurring outcroppings of copper ores, and then smelting those ores to cast bronze. These naturally occurring ores typically included arsenic as a common impurity. Coppertin ores are rare, as reflected in the fact that there were no tin bronzes in western Asia before 3. BC. After the Bronze Age, the history of metallurgy was marked by armies seeking better weaponry. Countries in Eurasia prospered when they made the superior alloys, which, in turn, made better armor and better weapons. This often determined the outcomes of battles. Significant progress in metallurgy and alchemy was made in ancient India. Iron AgeeditThe extraction of iron from its ore into a workable metal is much more difficult than copper or tin. It appears to have been invented by the Hittites in about 1. BC, beginning the Iron Age. The secret of extracting and working iron was a key factor in the success of the Philistines. In other words, the Iron Age refers to the advent of ferrous metallurgy. Historical developments in ferrous metallurgy can be found in a wide variety of past cultures and civilizations. This includes the ancient and medieval kingdoms and empires of the Middle East and Near East, ancient Iran, ancient Egypt, ancient Nubia, and Anatolia Turkey, Ancient Nok, Carthage, the Greeks and Romans of ancient Europe, medieval Europe, ancient and medieval China, ancient and medieval India, ancient and medieval Japan, amongst others. Many applications, practices, and devices associated or involved in metallurgy were established in ancient China, such as the innovation of the blast furnace, cast iron, hydraulic powered trip hammers, and double acting piston bellows. Classical antiquity and atomismeditDemocritus, Greek philosopher of atomistic school. Philosophical attempts to rationalize why different substances have different properties color, density, smell, exist in different states gaseous, liquid, and solid, and react in a different manner when exposed to environments, for example to water or fire or temperature changes, led ancient philosophers to postulate the first theories on nature and chemistry. The history of such philosophical theories that relate to chemistry can probably be traced back to every single ancient civilization. The common aspect in all these theories was the attempt to identify a small number of primary classical element that make up all the various substances in nature. Substances like air, water, and soilearth, energy forms, such as fire and light, and more abstract concepts such as ideas, aether, and heaven, were common in ancient civilizations even in absence of any cross fertilization for example in Greek, Indian, Mayan, and ancient Chinese philosophies all considered air, water, earth and fire as primary elements. Ancient worldeditAround 4. BC, Empedocles stated that all matter is made up of four elemental substancesearth, fire, air and water. The early theory of atomism can be traced back to ancient Greece and ancient India. Chemistry Education Resources. The Condition of STEM 2. This update on attainment of college and career readines is based on the results of the most recent ACT test on high school achievement and that was taken by 6. US graduates. The results are presented mainly in the form of bar graphs and tables that provide a multi dimensional breakdown of achievement and interests. Communicating Science extract By Roy Jensen is an introductory guide for conveying scientific information to academic and public audiences. This is the Table of Contents and a sample chapter Fundamentals of learning from the book, with links to sources. Those who still believe that lectures are valid means of instruction should look at Figure 3. No More Pencils, No More Books a 2. Slate article by Will Oremus on how artificially intelligent software is replacing the textbookand reshaping American education. ACS High School Chemistry Guidlines and Recommendations describe broad requirements for teaching chemistry to high school students from diverse populations. Mechstorm High Definition Patch For Pr1. These guidelines recognize the professional integrity of chemistry educators devoted to sharing and upholding best teaching practices and optimal facilities to achieve excellence. Apples new vision of education Ryan Fass, Computer. World, 2. 1 Jan 2. Books. 2 is part of Apples plan to disrupt and reinvent education. Wall Street Journal rapped over climate change stance Leading scientists, including climate change experts, complain about opinion piece akin to dentists practising cardiology. Whos Afraid of Peer Review Science 4 October 2. A spoof paper concocted by Science reveals little or no scrutiny at many open access journals. Online Chemistry degree offered by Western Governors University WGU, an accredited online university, is offering a B. A. program in Science Education with a specialization in Chemistry. It is intended to prepare students for licensure as high school teachers. The laboratory component of the program is provided by a self contained kit for use at home. A detailed program guide is available PDF file. In Budget Crunch, Science Fairs Struggle to Survive NY Times, Dec 2. A Quest to Explain What Grades Really Mean U North Carolina confronts grade inflation NY Times, Dec 2. Scientists Celebrate UK Libel Law Reform New libel laws for England and Wales should help protect scientific debate, but campaigners worry that legal costs remain a threat. In a Digital Future, Textbooks Are History NY Times August 8, 2. This article describes how a combination of evolving student attitudes and the limitations and costs of conventional textbooks are encouraging the use of digital materials in the classroom. Math Skills Suffer in U. S., Study Finds N. Y. Times, October 2. The United States is failing to develop the math skills of both girls and boys, especially among those who could excel at the highest levels, a new study asserts, and girls who do succeed in the field are almost all immigrants or the daughters of immigrants from countries where mathematics is more highly valued. Science Knowledge Quiz Test your knowledge of science facts and applications of scientific principles by taking our short 1. Then see how you did in comparison with a nationally representative group of 3,2. U. S. adults surveyed online and by mail between Aug. Sept. 3, 2. 01. 4 as members of the Pew Research Centers American Trends Panel. First It Was Song Downloads. Now Its Organic Chemistry. N. Y. Times, July 2. All forms of print publishing must contend with the digital transition, but college textbook publishing has a particularly nasty problem on its hands. College students may be the angriest group of captive customers to be found anywhere. Online, a free challenge to pricey college texts article in Los Angeles Times, August 2. See also Online open textbooks save students cash USA Today, July 2. Make Textbooks Affordable Campaign to Reduce College Textbook Costs offers its report Exposing the Textbook Industry How Publishers Pricing Tactics Drive Up the Cost of College Textbooks. There are also many links to various facets of the Open Textbook movement. See also these comments by Nicole Allen of the Open Educational Resources OER movement that supports this site. Dont try this at home a 2. Wired Magazine that shows how suppliers of chemicals to scientific amateurs are being hounded out of business by U. S. terrorist paranoia. See also this page from one of the afflicted companies. The Chemistry Set Generation This 2. RSCs Chemistry World takes a nostalgic look at the now bygone era of the home chemistry set. Chemistry at Play An article by Rosie Cook in the Chem. Heritage Discover magazine outlines the history and demise of the chemistry set. Banned the Golden Book of Chemistry Experiments a commentary by Chris Brunner. Chemistry Sets, Past and Present Great video report from Adam Rogers and Wired Science about the impotent chemistry sets being sold today and the glorious ones of the past. Disappeared in 2. Math Wars an article that appeared in Education World. The TIMSS studies have incited a hot debate centered on the way in which mathematics is being taught in many classrooms in this country. Is a traditional approach better than a whole math approach Which side will win out in Americas Math Wars Many Going to College Are Not Ready, Report Says Tamar Lewin, NY Times August 2. Only about half of this years high school graduates have the reading skills they need to succeed in college, and even fewer are prepared for college level science and math courses, according to a yearly report from AC. Colleges Reinvent Classes to Keep More Students in Science Story from The New York Times, Dec 2. Online Learning A 2. U. S. Dept. of Education report Evaluation of Evidence Based Practices in Online Learning. A Meta Analysis and Review of Online Learning Studies Student Alternative Conceptions in Chemistry This report, edited by Christopher Horton, is a product of the Modeling Instruction in High School Chemistry Action Research Teams held at Arizona State University in 2. It attempts to identify key misconceptions which impede student progress and to show how instruction can actually enhance these misconceptions. It was originally published in the California J. Science Education 72 2. How to Hold Colleges Accountable. Op ed from the New York Times, Feb 1. Beyond Appearances Students misconceptions about basic chemical ideas. This is an extensive and carefully done report by Vanessa Barker for the Royal Society of Chemistry. Teachers and course designers can quickly find the material pertinent to a given topic, such as changes of state, stoichiometry, equilibrium, etc. This excellent resource can also be     downloaded as a PDF document. RSC has also published Chemical Misconceptions authored by Keith Taber. Some other similar reports are listed on RSCs Chemical Misconceptions page. National Center for Case Studies Teaching in Science provides links to information, examples, workshops and conferences. Science and. A Chemistry. Coach site containing many. Link is to last archived update, 42. Statement on Computer Simulations in Academic Laboratories the official ACS position. The Status of High School Chemistry Teaching is one of a series of reports based on data from the 2. National Survey of Science and Mathematics Education, a survey of 5,7.